Iranian Journal of Educational Sociology

Meta-Analysis of the Digital Divide and the Reproduction of Educational Inequality in Developed Countries

Hossein Safari ^* iD , Naser Haghi iD

Purpose: The present study aimed to systematically synthesize empirical evidence on the relationship between the digital divide and the reproduction of educational inequality in developed countries and to determine the relative magnitude of access-based, skills-based, and outcome-based digital inequalities on educational outcomes.

Methods and Materials: This study employed a meta-analytic research design to integrate findings from quantitative investigations examining the association between the digital divide and educational inequality in developed countries. A total of 105 empirical studies published between 2000 and 2025 met the inclusion criteria and were incorporated into the analysis. Eligible studies reported quantitative measures of digital inequality and educational outcomes and provided sufficient statistical information for effect-size calculation. The digital divide was categorized into three dimensions: first-level (access-based inequalities), second-level (digital skills and competencies), and third-level (differences in educational benefits derived from digital technology use). Effect sizes were transformed into correlation coefficients and synthesized using meta-analytic procedures to estimate overall and dimension-specific relationships.

Findings: The meta-analysis revealed statistically significant positive associations between all dimensions of the digital divide and educational inequality. Access-based inequalities demonstrated a small but significant effect on educational outcomes (r = 0.12), indicating that disparities in technology access continue to influence educational opportunities despite widespread digital infrastructure in developed countries. Skills-based inequalities showed a moderate effect size (r = 0.28), suggesting that differences in digital competencies substantially contribute to educational stratification. The strongest relationship was observed for outcome-based inequalities (r = 0.35), highlighting the critical role of unequal capacity to transform digital engagement into academic success.

Conclusion: The findings indicate that the digital divide remains a significant mechanism in the reproduction of educational inequality in developed countries. While disparities in technological access have diminished over time, inequalities related to digital skills and digital capital continue to exert substantial influence on academic achievement and educational opportunities.

Validation of a Model for Improving the Quality of Islamic Education Courses in Iraqi Universities

Ghalib Mhmood Mhawes iD , Narges Saeidian Khorasgani ^* iD , Falah Salih Hussein iD , Badri Shahtalebi iD

https://doi.org/10.61838/kman.ijes.1520

Purpose: The present study aimed to validate a multidimensional model for improving the quality of Islamic education courses in Iraqi universities.

Methods and Materials: This quantitative study employed a descriptive, cross-sectional survey design. The statistical population consisted of 1,517 faculty members teaching Islamic education courses at Iraqi universities in 2025. Based on the Krejcie and Morgan sample-size table, 375 participants were selected through nonprobability convenience sampling. Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire consisting of 37 items scored on a five-point Likert scale. The instrument was developed from the theoretical and empirical literature and covered faculty-related factors, the Islamic identity of the university, university policymaking, higher education macro-policymaking, and Islamic education curriculum factors. Content validity was confirmed by subject-matter experts, face validity was verified by a group of respondents, and internal consistency was supported by a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.812. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate the measurement structure, construct validity, and overall fit of the proposed model.

Findings: Confirmatory factor analysis supported all five dimensions of the proposed model. Standardized factor loadings were 0.86 for faculty-related factors, 0.82 for the Islamic identity of the university, 0.80 for higher education macro-policymaking factors, 0.78 for university policymaking factors, and 0.74 for curriculum-related factors; all coefficients were statistically significant at p < 0.001. The model demonstrated an acceptable fit, χ²/df = 1.66, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, GFI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.042, and SRMR = 0.046. Composite reliability coefficients exceeded 0.85, and average variance extracted values were above 0.50 for all dimensions, confirming reliability and convergent validity. Discriminant validity was also supported.

Conclusion: The validated model indicates that improving Islamic education courses in Iraqi universities requires an integrated approach combining competent faculty members, a strong institutional Islamic identity, supportive university and national policies, and relevant, contemporary curricula.

Designing a Higher Education Development Model for Achieving Sustainable Development: A Case Study of Technical and Vocational Universities in West Azerbaijan Province

Mehrab Karimi iD , Roghaye Vahdat ^* iD , Niloufar Mortazanejad iD

https://doi.org/10.61838/r46erb60

Purpose: This study aimed to design a comprehensive higher education development model for achieving sustainable development in technical and vocational universities in West Azerbaijan Province.

Methods and Materials: This applied qualitative study was conducted in two complementary phases. In the first phase, a meta-synthesis approach based on the seven-step model of Sandelowski and Barroso was used to identify and integrate conceptual components extracted from previous studies. Relevant Persian and English studies published between 2005 and 2025 were systematically searched in valid scientific databases, and after screening and methodological quality assessment using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme checklist, 46 studies were selected for final analysis. In the second phase, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 23 higher education experts selected through purposive and snowball sampling until theoretical saturation was achieved. The interview data were analyzed using thematic analysis. The credibility and dependability of the findings were examined through expert review, participant validation, independent coding, and coder agreement.

Findings: The inferential synthesis of the meta-synthesis and thematic analysis indicated that sustainable higher education development is a multidimensional construct requiring the integration of managerial, educational, environmental, research-based, entrepreneurial, and social mechanisms. The final model included five overarching dimensions: strategic sustainability management, environmental management, education and learning for sustainability, sustainable innovation and entrepreneurship, and social responsibility. These dimensions were organized into 28 organizing themes and 125 basic themes. The results indicated that the realization of sustainable development in technical and vocational universities depends on coordinated governance, green resource management, curriculum integration of sustainability, applied green research, university–industry collaboration, responsible consumption, student empowerment, environmental ethics, and continuous evaluation of sustainability programs.

Conclusion: The proposed model provides an evidence-based and context-sensitive framework for guiding policy-making, strategic planning, institutional governance, and operational improvement in technical and vocational universities. By integrating sustainability into management, education, research, infrastructure, entrepreneurship, and social responsibility, the model can support universities in becoming active drivers of sustainable regional development.

Design and Validation of an Instrument for Assessing the Professional Priorities of Iraqi Primary School Principals: Evidence of Validity and Reliability Using Second-Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Hayder Abdulrazzaq Ghaffoori Alnajjar iD , Fatemeh Ziglari ^* iD , Samoom Jaranji iD , Jahanbakhsh Rahmani iD

https://doi.org/10.61838/12em8j60

Purpose: This study aimed to design and psychometrically validate an instrument for assessing the professional priorities of Iraqi primary school principals.

Methods and Materials: This instrument-development study was conducted among 381 public primary school principals selected from all 18 provinces of Iraq during the 2024–2025 academic year. The initial item pool was developed from the conceptual framework derived from the exploratory phase of the study and was refined through expert review. Content validity was evaluated by 12 professors of educational management using the content validity ratio and content validity index. The final questionnaire comprised 56 items distributed across eight dimensions and was rated on a five-point Likert scale. The measurement structure was examined using first-order and second-order confirmatory factor analyses. Convergent validity was assessed using average variance extracted, while construct reliability and internal consistency were evaluated using composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha.

Findings: All 56 items loaded significantly on their corresponding first-order factors, with standardized factor loadings ranging from 0.64 to 0.88 and all coefficients significant at p < .001. The first-order eight-factor model demonstrated satisfactory fit, χ²/df = 1.50, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.036, and SRMR = 0.041. The second-order model also showed acceptable fit, χ²/df = 1.52, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.037, and SRMR = 0.044. Standardized second-order loadings ranged from 0.68 to 0.87 and were all statistically significant. Average variance extracted values ranged from 0.52 to 0.68, composite reliability coefficients ranged from 0.88 to 0.94, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from 0.82 to 0.94. The total scale demonstrated an alpha coefficient of 0.92.

Conclusion: The developed questionnaire demonstrated a coherent eight-dimensional and hierarchical structure with satisfactory evidence of content validity, factorial validity, convergent validity, composite reliability, and internal consistency, supporting its use for research, professional assessment, and leadership development among Iraqi primary school principals.

A Comparative Analysis of the Effectiveness of Socratic Dialectic, Cartesian Analysis, and Spinozist Synthesis in the Philosophy for Students Program for Strengthening Cognitive Processing Skills

Masumeh Bayat ^* iD

https://doi.org/10.61838/prfg1e12

Purpose: The present study aimed to comparatively analyze the effectiveness of Socratic dialectic, Cartesian analysis, and Spinozist synthesis in strengthening students’ cognitive processing skills within the Philosophy for Students program.

Methods and Materials: This fundamental qualitative study employed a documentary, library-based, and comparative research design. The study corpus consisted of purposively selected primary philosophical works, specialized books, and domestic and international scholarly studies related to Socratic dialectic, Cartesian analysis, Spinozist synthesis, philosophy of education, cognitive science, critical thinking, metacognition, and philosophical inquiry. Data were collected using a researcher-developed document review and conceptual extraction form. Meaningful propositions concerning cognitive mechanisms, educational applications, strengths, limitations, and conditions of effectiveness were identified and coded. The data were analyzed through qualitative content analysis, constant comparison, and comparative interpretation. Initial codes were organized into broader categories, including questioning, conceptual clarification, critical evaluation, analytical decomposition, logical sequencing, inferential reasoning, causal-relational understanding, cognitive synthesis, and metacognitive regulation.

Findings: The comparative analysis indicated that Socratic dialectic was most effective in generating questions, identifying assumptions, clarifying concepts, detecting contradictions, promoting cognitive flexibility, and strengthening metacognitive awareness. Cartesian analysis showed the greatest effectiveness in decomposing complex problems, organizing reasoning sequentially, evaluating evidence, controlling cognitive error, and drawing systematic inferences. Spinozist synthesis was most effective in causal-relational reasoning, systems thinking, knowledge integration, emotional-cognitive coordination, and constructing coherent explanatory structures.

Conclusion: The effectiveness of the three philosophical methods is complementary and context dependent; therefore, their sequential integration can provide a more comprehensive pedagogical framework for strengthening students’ critical, analytical, systemic, and metacognitive processing skills.

Validation and Prioritization of Factors Affecting Artificial Intelligence Literacy Education

Sima Akbary iD , Shahram Ranjdoust ^* iD

https://doi.org/10.61838/1dm2nq93

Purpose: The present study aimed to examine and determine the effects of presenteeism on professional productivity among faculty members of universities in North Khorasan.

Methods and Materials: This study was conducted using an exploratory mixed-methods design integrating qualitative and quantitative approaches. In the qualitative phase, key dimensions of presenteeism were identified through a comprehensive review of the literature and semi-structured interviews with academic and executive experts who had at least ten years of professional experience and relevant scholarly publications. The extracted indicators were refined and screened using the fuzzy Delphi technique to achieve expert consensus. In the quantitative phase, the proposed model was validated using a survey method. The statistical population consisted of approximately 1,300 faculty members, from which a sample of 296 participants was selected based on the Morgan and Krejcie table (1972). Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire derived from the qualitative findings. The validity and reliability of the instrument were confirmed through content validity, construct validity, and internal consistency measures. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 26 for preliminary analysis and Smart PLS version 3 for structural equation modeling.

Findings: The results of structural equation modeling indicated that presenteeism has a significant and strong effect on professional productivity (β = 0.679, t = 16.177, p < 0.05). The model demonstrated acceptable goodness-of-fit indices (χ²/df = 2.79, CFI = 0.95, GFI = 0.96, AGFI = 0.95, NFI = 0.97, NNFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.075), confirming the adequacy of the proposed structural model. These findings suggest that presenteeism is a key determinant of variations in professional productivity among faculty members.

Conclusion: The study concludes that presenteeism significantly influences professional productivity among faculty members and represents a critical factor affecting academic performance and organizational effectiveness. Addressing the underlying causes of presenteeism can enhance both employee well-being and institutional productivity.

Designing and Validating a Model of Supportive School Culture for Newly Recruited Teachers: A Mixed-Methods Study

Samira Khezri iD , Javad Keyhan ^* iD , Maryam Sameri iD

https://doi.org/10.61838/b1jr3v62

Purpose: The present study aimed to design and validate a comprehensive model of supportive school culture focused on newly recruited teachers and to identify the causal, contextual, intervening, strategic, and outcome-related factors influencing the development and sustainability of such a culture within schools.

Methods and Materials: This applied-developmental study employed an exploratory mixed-methods design. In the qualitative phase, grounded theory methodology following Strauss and Corbin’s approach was used. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 23 educational experts, including faculty members, educational administrators, human resource specialists, and teacher trainers. Through open, axial, and selective coding, 521 open codes and 107 axial codes were identified and organized into a paradigmatic model. In the quantitative phase, the proposed model was validated using structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population consisted of public-school teachers in West Azerbaijan Province, Iran. A sample of 280 teachers was selected through multistage cluster sampling. Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire derived from the qualitative findings. Reliability and validity indices, including Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, average variance extracted, discriminant validity, and model fit indicators, were assessed before testing the structural model.

Findings: Structural equation modeling confirmed the adequacy and validity of the proposed model. Significant direct effects were found between causal conditions and the central phenomenon (β = 0.500, t = 12.495), contextual conditions and supportive strategies (β = 0.372, t = 3.388), intervening conditions and supportive strategies (β = 0.378, t = 5.891), and the central phenomenon and supportive strategies (β = 0.456, t = 12.741). The strongest relationship emerged between supportive strategies and educational outcomes (β = 0.735, t = 22.144), indicating that implementation of supportive strategies substantially enhanced positive outcomes. Measurement model assessment demonstrated acceptable reliability and convergent validity, while discriminant validity was confirmed through both the Fornell–Larcker and HTMT criteria. Overall model fit indices were excellent (SRMR = 0.009, NFI = 0.912, GOF = 0.851), supporting the robustness of the proposed framework.

Conclusion: The findings indicate that supportive school culture is a multidimensional construct shaped by structural, managerial, cultural, psychological, and professional factors. The validated model demonstrates that comprehensive support systems—including psychosocial care, professional development opportunities, collaborative learning structures, equitable policies, and participatory leadership—play a crucial role in strengthening professional identity, enhancing teaching performance, increasing job commitment, fostering collaborative school environments, and reducing occupational burnout among newly recruited teachers. The model offers a practical and evidence-based framework for educational policymakers and school leaders seeking to improve teacher retention, professional growth, and educational quality.

Evaluation of the Dimensions of a Proposed Social Skills-Based Curriculum Model for Students with Reading Disabilities Based on Aker’s Model

Sedigheh Yaghoubi Maleki iD , Seyed Abdollah Hojjati ^* iD , Sohrab Yazdani iD

https://doi.org/10.61838/czbn0587

Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the dimensions of a proposed social skills-based curriculum model for students with reading disabilities based on Aker’s model.

Methods and Materials: This study was conducted within the pragmatism paradigm using a social constructivist approach, inductive reasoning, and a mixed-methods design. The research was implemented in three stages: synthesis of the research literature, model design, and model validation. In the synthesis phase, the statistical population included 132 valid scientific studies related to the research topic, of which 52 studies were selected through purposive sampling according to predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. In the quantitative phase, the statistical population consisted of curriculum professors and teachers working with students with reading disabilities in East Azerbaijan Province. From a population of 4,500 individuals, 305 participants were selected using cluster sampling. Data were collected through research synthesis procedures and a researcher-made questionnaire. Qualitative data were analyzed using Roberts’ synthesis method, and the validity of the proposed model was examined using a one-sample t-test in SPSS version 28. The quality of the reviewed studies was assessed using the CASP checklist, and coding reliability was confirmed by a Kappa coefficient of 0.666. The reliability of the questionnaire was also confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.963.

Findings: The inferential results of the one-sample t-test showed that all dimensions of the proposed model were statistically confirmed at a significance level of less than 0.001. The test statistics were significant for rationale (t = 84.185), objectives (t = 72.393), content (t = 90.343), method (t = 92.045), teacher role (t = 60.329), assessment (t = 88.086), materials and resources (t = 32.857), learner grouping (t = 58.934), and time and place (t = 80.435). Accordingly, all proposed dimensions demonstrated acceptable statistical validity.

Conclusion: The findings indicate that the proposed social skills-based curriculum model, consisting of validated dimensions such as rationale, objectives, content, method, teacher role, assessment, materials and resources, learner grouping, and time and place, can provide a practical framework for designing, revising, and improving curriculum programs for students with reading disabilities.

Iranian Journal of Educational Sociology

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Exploring the Challenges of Establishing Smart Schools in Iraq Based on Thematic Analysis

Validation of Barriers to the Implementation of Educational Technology in Education

The Relationship Between Perception of the Learning Environment and Employment Hope in Predicting Students’ Academic Vitality in the Post-COVID-19 Era

Validation of the Effective Student Transfer Model: An Examination of the Quantitative Model

Modeling the Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy in the Relationship Between Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Artificial Intelligence and Their Readiness to Teach It

Validation of a Curriculum Model Based on Students’ Social–Emotional Competence for Effective Activity in Cyberspace Using a Structural Equation Modeling Approach

Student-Initiated Sequences in IELTS Preparation Courses: The Role of Socioeconomic Status and Gender

Identifying the Dimensions of an Effective Classroom Management Model Based on Technological Approaches for Physical Education Students at Wasit University

Entrepreneurship in Higher Education from a Futures Studies Perspective

Explanation and Design of an Indigenous Model for a Skill-Based University at Urmia University Based on Grounded Theory with the Strauss and Corbin Approach

A Comparative Study of the Talent Management Model for Gifted Students in the Educational Systems of Iran and Canada and the Presentation of a Health-Based Talent Identification Model

Identifying the Dimensions and Presenting Managerial Strategies for Improving the Status of Sports Accidents in Schools

Design and Elucidation of an Outcome-Based Educational Management Model in the Education System of Afghanistan

Predicting Academic Guidance of Secondary School Students Based on Cognitive–Emotional Factors Using a Structural Equation Modelling Approach

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